北京第二外国语学院 611英语综合考研历年真题答案参考书目

  封面             【初试】2024 年北京第二外国语学院  611 英语综合考研精品资料              考研精品资料 第 2 页 共 434 页 【初试】2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研精品资料  说明：本套资料由高分研究生潜心整理编写，高清 PDF 电子版支持打印，考研首选资料。  一、北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语考研真题汇编及考研大纲  1．北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 1998-2017 年考研真题；其中 2000-2017 有答案。 说明：分析历年考研真题可以把握出题脉络，了解考题难度、风格，侧重点等，为考研复习指明方向。 2.北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲  ①2022 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲。 ②2023 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲。 说明：考研大纲给出了考试范围及考试内容，是考研出题的重要依据，同时也是分清重难点进行针对性复 习的首选资料，本项为免费提供。 二、2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研资料  3．《美国文学简史》考研资料  （1）《美国文学简史》考研资料[笔记+提纲] ①北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合之《美国文学简史》考研复习笔记。 说明：本书重点复习笔记，条理清晰，重难点突出，提高复习效率，基础强化阶段首选资料。 ②北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合之《美国文学简史》复习提纲。  说明：该科目复习重难点提纲，提炼出重难点，有的放矢，提高复习针对性。 （2）《美国文学简史》考研核心题库（含答案）  ①2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合之《美国文学简史》考研核心题库精编。  说明：本题库涵盖了该考研科目常考题型及重点题型，根据历年考研大纲要求，结合考研真题进行的分类 汇编并给出了详细答案，针对性强，是考研复习首选资料。 4．《语言学教程》考研资料  （1）《语言学教程》考研资料[笔记+提纲] ①北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合之《语言学教程》考研复习笔记。 说明：本书重点复习笔记，条理清晰，重难点突出，提高复习效率，基础强化阶段首选资料。 ②北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合之《语言学教程》复习提纲。  说明：该科目复习重难点提纲，提炼出重难点，有的放矢，提高复习针对性。 （2）《语言学教程》考研核心题库（含答案）  ①2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合之《语言学教程》考研核心题库精编。  说明：本题库涵盖了该考研科目常考题型及重点题型，根据历年考研大纲要求，结合考研真题进行的分类 汇编并给出了详细答案，针对性强，是考研复习首选资料。 三、电子版资料全国统一零售价  考研精品资料 第 3 页 共 434 页 5．本套考研资料包含以上一、二部分（高清 PDF 电子版，不含教材），全国统一零售价：[￥]  特别说明：  ①本套资料由本机构编写组按照考试大纲、真题、指定参考书等公开信息整理收集编写，仅供考研复习参 考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们将立即处理。 ②资料中若有真题及课件为免费赠送，仅供参考，版权归属学校及制作老师，在此对版权所有者表示感谢， 如有异议及不妥，请联系我们，我们将无条件立即处理！ 四、2024 年研究生入学考试指定/推荐参考书目（资料不包括教材）  6．北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研初试参考书 《新编英国文学选读》（第四版）罗经国，北京大学出版社，2016 年。 《美国文学选读》（第三版）陶洁，高等教育出版社，2000 年。 《美国文学简史》（第三版）常耀信，南开大学出版社，2008 年。 《语言学教程》(第四版)(英文)胡壮麟，北京大学出版社，2011 年。 《英语国家概况》（修订版）谢福之主编，外语教学与研究出版社，2013 年。 四、本套考研资料适用学院和专业  英语学院：英语语言文学/翻译学 英语学院、中国“一带一路”战略研究院：外国语言学及应用语言学 首都国际交往中心研究院、中国服务贸易研究院：国际文化贸易  版权声明   编写组依法对本书享有专有著作权，同时我们尊重知识产权，对本电子书部分内容参考和引用的市面 上已出版或发行图书及来自互联网等资料的文字、图片、表格数据等资料，均要求注明作者和来源。但由 于各种原因，如资料引用时未能联系上作者或者无法确认内容来源等，因而有部分未注明作者或来源，在 此对原作者或权利人表示感谢。若使用过程中对本书有任何异议请直接联系我们，我们会在第一时间与您 沟通处理。 因编撰此电子书属于首次，加之作者水平和时间所限，书中错漏之处在所难免，恳切希望广大考生读 者批评指正。   考研精品资料 第 4 页 共 434 页 目录 封面............................................................................................................................................................. 1 目录............................................................................................................................................................. 4 2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合备考信息 .................................................................................. 7 北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研初试参考书目.................................................................................... 7 北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研招生适用院系.................................................................................... 7 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语历年真题汇编....................................................................................... 8 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 1998 年考研真题（暂无答案）.............................................................. 8 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 1999 年考研真题（暂无答案）............................................................ 24 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2000 年考研真题.................................................................................... 32 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2000 年考研真题答案............................................................................ 41 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2001 年考研真题.................................................................................... 44 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2001 年考研真题答案............................................................................ 56 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2002 年考研真题.................................................................................... 57 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2002 年考研真题答案............................................................................ 66 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2003 年考研真题.................................................................................... 67 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2003 年考研真题答案............................................................................ 79 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2004 年考研真题.................................................................................... 80 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2004 年考研真题答案............................................................................ 93 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2005 年考研真题.................................................................................... 94 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2005 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 108 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2006 年考研真题.................................................................................. 109 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2006 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 118 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2007 年考研真题.................................................................................. 119 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2007 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 131 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2008 年考研真题.................................................................................. 132 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2008 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 142 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2009 年考研真题.................................................................................. 144 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2009 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 153 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2010 年考研真题.................................................................................. 155 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2010 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 164 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2011 年考研真题.................................................................................. 166 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2011 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 177 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2012 年考研真题及答案...................................................................... 180 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2013 年考研真题及答案...................................................................... 195 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2014 年考研真题.................................................................................. 209 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2014 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 220  考研精品资料 第 5 页 共 434 页 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2015 年考研真题.................................................................................. 223 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2015 年考研真题答案.......................................................................... 234 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2016 年考研真题及答案...................................................................... 237 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 2017 年考研真题及答案...................................................................... 259 北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲 ...........................................................................................262 2022 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲................................................................................... 262 2023 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲................................................................................... 265 2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研核心笔记........................................................................268 《美国文学简史》考研核心笔记..............................................................................................................268 INTRODUCTION: A SURVEY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE................................................................................................. 268 CHAPTER 1 COLONIAL PERIOD ............................................................................................................................... 268 CHAPTER 2 EDWARDS FRANKLIN CREVECOEUR......................................................................................................... 269 CHAPTER 3 AMERICAN ROMANTICISM IRVING COOPER ............................................................................................. 271 CHAPTER 4 NEW ENGLAND TRANSCENDENTALISM EMERSON THOREAU....................................................................... 274 CHAPTER 5 HAWTHORNE MELVILLE........................................................................................................................ 276 CHAPTER 6 WHITMAN DICKINSON ......................................................................................................................... 278 CHAPTER 7 EDGAR ALLAN POE .............................................................................................................................. 280 CHAPTER 8 THE AGE OF REALISM HOWELLS JAMES................................................................................................... 281 CHAPTER 9 LOCAL COLORISM MARK TWAIN ............................................................................................................ 284 CHAPTER 10 AMERICAN NATURALISM CRANE NORRIS DREISER ROBINSON .................................................................. 285 CHAPTER 11 THE 1920S IMAGISM POUND ............................................................................................................. 288 CHAPTER 12 T. S. ELIOT STEVENS WILLIAMS ........................................................................................................... 289 CHAPTER 13 AMEIRICAN POETS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY.................................................................................... 290 CHAPTER 14 FITZGERALD • HEMINGWAY ................................................................................................................ 293 CHAPTER 15 THE SOUTHERN RENAISSANCE • WILLIAM FAULKNER.............................................................................. 296 CHAPTER 16 ANDERSON • STEIN • LEWIS •CATHER •WOLFE..................................................................................... 297 CHAPTER 17 THE 1930S •DOS PASSOS • JOHN STEINBECK........................................................................................ 298 CHAPTER 18 THE NEW CRITICISM .......................................................................................................................... 300 CHAPTER 19 AMEIRICAN DRAMA .......................................................................................................................... 301 CHAPTER 20 POST WAR POETRY POETS OF THE 1940S GENERATION .......................................................................... 303 CHAPTER 21 THE CONFESSIONAL SCHOOL THE BEAT GENERATION .............................................................................. 305 CHAPTER 22 THE NEW YORK SCHOOL MEDITATIVE POETRY THE BLACK MOUNTAIN POETS............................................. 307 CHAPTER 23 THE POSTWAR AMERICAN NOVEL ( I ).................................................................................................. 310 CHAPTER 24 THE POSTWAR AMERICAN NOVEL (II)................................................................................................... 315 《语言学教程》考研核心笔记 .................................................................................................................322 CHAPTER 1 INVITATIONS TO LINGUISTICS ................................................................................................................. 322 CHAPTER 2 SPEECH SOUNDS ................................................................................................................................. 326  考研精品资料 第 6 页 共 434 页 CHAPTER 3 LEXICON ............................................................................................................................................ 331 CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX.............................................................................................................................................. 336 CHAPTER 5 MEANING .......................................................................................................................................... 340 CHAPTER 6 LANGUAGE PROCESSING IN MIND.......................................................................................................... 343 CHAPTER 7 LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND SOCIETY........................................................................................................ 347 CHAPTER 8 LANGUAGE IN USE............................................................................................................................... 349 CHAPTER 9 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE ................................................................................................................. 353 CHAPTER 10 LANGUAGE AND COMPUTER ............................................................................................................... 357 CHAPTER 11 LINGUISTICS AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING .................................................................................. 360 CHAPTER 12 THEORIES AND SCHOOLS OF MODERN LINGUISTICS................................................................................. 364 2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研复习提纲........................................................................370 《美国文学简史》考研复习提纲 ................................................................................................................... 370 《语言学教程》考研复习提纲 ....................................................................................................................... 378 2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研核心题库........................................................................396 《美国文学简史》考研核心题库之简答题精编............................................................................................ 396 《美国文学简史》考研核心题库之论述题精编............................................................................................ 399 《语言学教程》考研核心题库之名词解释精编............................................................................................ 404 《语言学教程》考研核心题库之简答题精编................................................................................................ 412 《语言学教程》考研核心题库之论述题精编................................................................................................ 423   考研精品资料 第 7 页 共 434 页 2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合备考信息  北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研初试参考书目  《新编英国文学选读》（第四版）罗经国，北京大学出版社，2016 年。 《美国文学选读》（第三版）陶洁，高等教育出版社，2000 年。 《美国文学简史》（第三版）常耀信，南开大学出版社，2008 年。 《语言学教程》(第四版)(英文)胡壮麟，北京大学出版社，2011 年。 《英语国家概况》（修订版）谢福之主编，外语教学与研究出版社，2013 年。 北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研招生适用院系 英语学院：英语语言文学/翻译学 英语学院、中国“一带一路”战略研究院：外国语言学及应用语言学 首都国际交往中心研究院、中国服务贸易研究院：国际文化贸易  考研精品资料 第 8 页 共 434 页 北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语历年真题汇编  北京第二外国语学院 611 基础英语 1998 年考研真题（暂无答案）  考研精品资料 第 9 页 共 434 页  考研精品资料 第 10 页 共 434 页  考研精品资料 第 11 页 共 434 页  考研精品资料 第 262 页 共 434 页 北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲  2022 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲  北京第二外国语学院攻读硕士学位研究生入学考试  《英语综合》考试大纲   一、适用的招生专业  英语语言文学与国际文化贸易、翻译学、外国语言学及应用语言学 二、考试的基本要求  英语语言文学专业要求考生系统掌握英美文学、英美社会文化和语言学相关学科的基本知识、基础 理论和基本方法，要求考生熟练运用英语进行知识解答，具有较强思维能力以及综合运用所学知识进行分 析问题和解决问题的能力。 翻译学专业要求考生在掌握英语语言学、英美文学相关学科基本知识的基础上，系统掌握翻译学基 础理论、基本流派和基本方法，并具备一定的翻译转换能力，要求考生具有较强思维能力以及综合运用所 学知识进行分析问题和解决问题的能力。 外国语言学及应用语言学专业要求考生系统掌握语言学、英美文学、英美社会文化相关学科的基本知 识、基础理论和基本方法，要求考生具备宽广的知识面和扎实的语言基本功，能熟练运用英语进行交际， 具有较强思维能力以及综合运用所学知识进行分析问题和解决问题的能力。 三、试卷结构  英语语言文学与国际文化贸易专业  总分：150 分（英美文学 50 分；英美概况 50 分；语言学 50 分） 题型：  翻译学专业  总分：150 分 （翻译学 50 分；英美文学 50 分；语言学 50 分） 题型： 【翻 译 学】 1、英译汉 语篇 1 篇 2、汉译英 语篇 1 篇 3、问答题 2 个 【英美文学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【语 言 学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 外国语言学及应用语言学专业   总分：150 分（语言学 50 分；英美文学 50 分；英美概况 50 分） 题型： 【英美文学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【语 言 学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【英美概况】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个  考研精品资料 第 263 页 共 434 页   四、考试的主要内容与要求   （一）英美文学   主要内容：英美文学史、文学思潮、文学阶段的基本概况及重要作家风格、特点及其代表作品的理解。 要求：  1、熟练掌握英国文学与美国文学重要文学阶段、理解英美文学思潮、重要作家及其重要作品的基本 知识。 2、 能够运用一定的文学批判方法对英美文学作品进行分析，并做出一定的评价。 （二）英美概况 主要内容：美国社会文化、英国社会文化的相关知识。 要求：对英美国家的社会制度和历史文化等有较为深入的了解，具备较宽广的知识面和较强的思辨能 力，能够提出自己的见解。 （三）语言学   主要内容：   1、语言学研究范围、方法等； 2、语言的界定、语言属性、功能等； 3、语音学基础知识； 4、音位学规则； 5、形态学基础知识； 6、句法学基础知识； 7、语义学基础知识； 8、语用学基础知识； 9、语言的心理过程； 10、语言、思维、文化； 11、现代语言学理论与流派等。 要求：要求考生掌握语言的本质与属性、语言的各构成要素（语音、形态、句法语义）语言的使用、 语言、思维与文化、语言学流派等基本知识、基本理论和基本方法，并能综合运用所学知识分析和解决社 会语言生活中的实际问题。 （四）翻译学  主要内容：翻译实践和中西方翻译理论知识。 要求：能够较完整地实现英汉、汉英之间的语篇翻译转换，具有扎实的双语能力、翻译意识、跨文化 转换能力，同时对中西翻译史及基本的翻译理论有较为深入的了解，并且能够运用相关理论分析问题，提 出自己的见解。 五、主要参考书目 英语语言文学和国际文化贸易专业：  《新编英国文学选读》（第四版）罗经国，北京大学出版社，2016 年。 【语 言 学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【英美文学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【英美概况】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个  考研精品资料 第 264 页 共 434 页 《美国文学选读》（第三版） 陶 洁，高等教育出版社，2000 年。 《美国文学简史》（第三版） 常耀信，南开大学出版社，2008 年。 《语言学教程》(第四版)(英文) 胡壮麟，北京大学出版社，2011 年。 《英语国家概况》（修订版） 谢福之主编，外语教学与研究出版社，2013 年。 翻译学专业：  《新编英国文学选读》（第四版）罗经国，北京大学出版社，2016 年。 《美国文学选读》（第三版） 陶 洁，高等教育出版社，2000 年。 《美国文学简史》（第三版） 常耀信，南开大学出版社，2008 年。 《语言学教程》(第四版)(英文) 胡壮麟，北京大学出版社，2011 年。 《中国译学理论史稿》(修订版） 陈福康，上海外语教育出版社，2000 年 。 《英汉对比研究》（增订本）连淑能，高等教育出版社，2010 年。 《西方翻译简史》（增订版）谭载喜，商务印书馆，2004 年。 A Textbook of Translation. Peter Newmark，Shanghai FLEP，2001. 外国语言学及应用语言学 《语言学教程》(第四版)(英文) 胡壮麟，北京大学出版社，2011 年。 《新编英国文学选读》（第四版）罗经国，北京大学出版社，2016 年。 《美国文学选读》（第三版） 陶 洁，高等教育出版社，2000 年。 《美国文学简史》（第三版） 常耀信，南开大学出版社，2008 年。 《英语国家概况》（修订版） 谢福之主编，外语教学与研究出版社，2013 年。 《英语国家社会与文化入门》（第三版），朱永涛等著，高等教育出版社，2011 年。  考研精品资料 第 265 页 共 434 页 2023 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研大纲  北京第二外国语学院攻读硕士学位研究生入学考试  《英语综合》考试大纲 一、适用的招生专业  英语语言文学与国际文化贸易、翻译学、外国语言学及应用语言学 二、考试的基本要求  英语语言文学专业要求考生系统掌握英美文学、英美社会文化和语言学相关学科的基本知识、基础理论和 基本方法，要求考生熟练运用英语进行知识解答，具有较强思维能力以及综合运用所学知识进行分析问题 和解决问题的能力。 翻译学专业要求考生在掌握英语语言学、英美文学相关学科基本知识的基础上，系统掌握翻译学基础理论、 基本流派和基本方法，并具备一定的翻译转换能力，要求考生具有较强思维能力以及综合运用所学知识进 行分析问题和解决问题的能力。 外国语言学及应用语言学专业要求考生系统掌握语言学、英美文学、英美社会文化相关学科的基本知识、 基础理论和基本方法，要求考生具备宽广的知识面和扎实的语言基本功，能熟练运用英语进行交际，具有 较强思维能力以及综合运用所学知识进行分析问题和解决问题的能力。 三、试卷结构  英语语言文学与国际文化贸易专业 总分：150 分（英美文学 50 分；英美概况 50 分；语言学 50 分） 题型： 翻译学专业 总分：150 分（翻译 学 50 分；英美文学 50 分；语言学 50 分） 题型： 【翻译学】 1、英译汉语篇 1 篇 2、汉译英语篇 1 篇 3、问答题 2 个 【英美文学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【语言学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 外国语言学及应用语言学专业 总分：150 分（语言学 50 分；英美文学 50 分；英美概况 50 分） 题型： 【英美文学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【语言学】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【英美概况】 1、简答题 5 个 2、问答题 2 个 【语言学】 1、简答题 5 个  考研精品资料 第 268 页 共 434 页 2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研核心笔记  《美国文学简史》考研核心笔记 Introduction: A Survey of American Literature I. What is Literature? Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. Broadly speaking, "literature" is used to  describe anything from creative writing to more technical or scientific works, but the term is most commonly used  to refer to works of the creative imagination, including works of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction. II. Why do we read literature?青岛掌р心博阅电Ю子书 1. Literature represents a language or a people: culture and tradition.  2. Literature is more important than just a historical or cultural artifact.  3. Literature introduces us to new worlds of experience.  4. We learn about books and literature; we enjoy the comedies and the tragedies of poems, stories, and plays;  and we may even grow and evolve through our literary journey with books. 5. Ultimately, we may discover meaning in literature by looking at what the author says and how he/she says  it. We may interpret the author's message.  6. In academic circles, this decoding of the text is often carried out through the use of literary theory, using a mythological, sociological, psychological, historical, or other approach. III. Why is literature important?  Literature is important to us because it speaks to us, it is universal, it affects us and it is beautiful. IV. What are we to learn from the book? The book “A Survey of American Literature” intends to cover the whole range of the literary history of the  United States of America from the early Colonial Period through the present.  We need to learn:  1. A brief account of the major authors and their masterworks. 2. The major literary trends and currents of thought that have dominated the American literary  scene at one time or another. Chapter 1 Colonial Period I. Historical Background 1. The first permanent English settlement in North America at James town, Virginia in 1617. 2. In 1629 the puritans established the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 3. Independent War(1776-1783); the formation of a federative bourgeois democratic republic---the United  States of America. II. American Puritanism  考研精品资料 第 269 页 共 434 页 1. Basic Puritan Beliefs a. Total Depravity - through Adam and Eve's fall, every person is born sinful - concept of Original Sin.  b. Unconditional Election - God "saves" those he wishes - only a few are selected for salvation - concept of  predestination.  c. Limited Atonement - Jesus died for the chosen only, not for everyone.  d. Irresistible Grace - God's grace is freely given, it cannot be earned or denied. Grace is defined as the  saving and transfiguring power of God.  e. Perseverance of the "saints" - those elected by God have full power to interpret the will of God, and to live  uprightly. If anyone rejects grace after feeling its power in his life, he will be going against the will of God - something impossible in Puritanism.青岛掌р心博阅电Ю子书 f. Puritan values (creeds): Hard work, thrift, piety, sobriety, simple tastes. Puritans are more practical, tougher,  to be ever ready for any misfortune and tragic failure and optimistic.. 2. Influence on American Literature a. America literature is in good measure a literary expression of the pious idealism of the  American Puritanism bequest. All literature is based on a myth of garden of Eden. b. Symbolism: the American puritan’s metaphorical mode of perception was chiefly instrumental in calling  into being a literary symbolism which is distinctly American. Symbolism as a technique has become a common  practice in American literature. c. With regard to their writing, the style is fresh, simple and direct; the rhetoric is plain and honest, not  without a touch of nobility often traceable to the direct influence of the Bible. III. The literary Scene in colonial America 1. Humble origins: diaries, histories, journals, letters, travel books, autobiographies/biographies, sermons 2. Writers:  a. John Smith: the first American writer b. Anne Bradstreet: a Puritan poet  The Complete Work: Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650)  c. Edward Taylor: a variety of verse: funeral elegies, lyrics, a medieval "debate," and a 500-page Metrical  History of Christianity (mainly a history of martyrs). His best works, according to modern critics, are the series of  short Preparatory Meditations. d. Thomas Paine: Common Sense e. Philip Freneau: “Poet of the American Revolution” “Father of American Poetry” the most significant poet of 18th century in America. Some off his themes and images anticipated the works of such 19th century American Romantic writers as  Cooper, Emerson, Poe and Melville. Chapter 2 Edwards Franklin Crevecoeur I. Historical Background 1. The War of Independence In the 1780s, the English colonies in North America rose in arms against their mother country. The  Independent War lasted for eight years (1775----1783) and ended in the formation of a Federative bourgeois  democratic republic----the United States of America.  a. 1775, Lexington, beginning of the Independence War.  考研精品资料 第 270 页 共 434 页 b. June 4th, 1776, Thomas Jefferson, Declaration of Independence. c. 1778, alliance with France, turning point for American army. d. 1778, English army surrendered. e. 1783, formal recognition from Britain government. 2. The American Enlightenment  a. It was a part of a larger intellectual movement known as the Age of Enlightenment.  b. Influenced by the scientific revolution of the 17th century, the Enlightenment took scientific reasoning and  applied it to human nature and society. c. Reason was advocated as the primary source and basis of authority. d. There was a shift from God-centered thinking to human being centered. Instead of going through life  unhappy and thinking they had to suffer so they could enjoy the afterlife - people began to think about what they  could accomplish on earth. e. Equality f. The American Enlightenment inflenced Benjamin Franklin dramatically. 3. Great Awening a. It is a serires of religious revivals that swept over the American colonies about the middle of the 18th  century. 青岛掌ё心博阅电子书 b. It results in doctrinal changes and influnce social and political thought. c. In New England it was started by the rousing preaching of Jonathan Edwards. II. Jonathan Edwards 1. Life:  a. born in 1703 into a very religious New England family b. entered Yale at the age of 13 c. in 1723, returned to Yale to take his M.A. d. in 1726, became assistant to the church of Northampton and stared to preach e. in 1750, left Massachusetts and became a pastor to an indian community 2. Works:  The Freedom of the Will 《论意志自由》 The Great Doctrine of Original Sin Defended 《论原罪》 The Nature of True Virtue 《论真实德行的本原》 3. Assessment  Jonathan Edwards was a good deal of a transcentalist because of his ideas: a. The spirit of revivalism b. Regeneration of man c. God’s presence d. Puritan idealism III. Benjamin Franklin 1. Life:  a. born into a poor candle maker’s family. He had very little education.  b. learned in school only for two years, but he was a voracious reader. c. At 12, apprenticed to his elder half-brother, a printer. d. At 16, he began to publish essays under the pseudonym “Silence Do-good” 静行善.  考研精品资料 第 271 页 共 434 页 e. At 17, ran away to Philadelphia to make his own fortune. f. set himself up as an independent printer and publisher. He founded the Junto club. g. helped found the Pennsylvania Hospital, an academy which led to the University of Pennsylvania, and the  American Philosophical Society. h. the only American to sign the four documents that created the United States: the Declaration of  Independence, the treaty of alliance with France, the treaty of peace with England, and the constitution. i. Jack of all trades 2. Works:  a. The Autobiography 《自传》 i. The Autobiography is, first of all, a Puritan document. It is a record of self-examination and  self-improvement.  ii. The Autobiography is also an eloquent elucidation of the fact that Benjamin Franklin was spokesman for  the new order of 18th century enlightenment, and that he represented in America all its ideas, that man is basically  good and free, by nature endowed by God with certain inalienable rights of liberty and the pursuit of happiness. iii. Through telling a success story of self-reliance, the book celebrates, in fact, the fulfillment of the  American dream. iv. Now a look at the style of The Autobiography will readily reveal that it is the pattern of Puritan simplicity,  directness, and concision. b. Poor Richard’s Almanac 《穷理查德格言历书》 i. Poor Richard’s Almanac is full of adages and common-sense witticism which became ,very quickly,  household words. E.g. A penny saved is a penny earned God help them that help themselves ii. Benjamin Franklin Borrowed from such writers as Defoe, Swift, and Pope , and used his own wit to  simplify and enrich their axioms Chapter 3 American Romanticism Irving Cooper I. Historical Background 1. Political: After American Revolution, America developed into a political, economic and cultural  independence. Democracy and equality became the ideals of the new nation. Complete changes came about in the  political life of the country. 2. Economic: Industrialism spread widely and fast. A large number of immigrants arrived. All these produced  an economic boom. 3. Both the change in political and the economic development brought about a sense of optimism and hope. 4. Culturally: Magazines appeared in ever-increasing numbers and they played an important role in  facilitating literary expansion.青岛掌ё心博阅电子书 5. Foreign influence added incentive to the growth of romanticism in America. II. General Introduction to Romanticism Romanticism is a complex artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of  the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Industrial Revolution. It was partly a revolt  against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific  rationalization of nature, and was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature. The movement stressed  a. strong emotion as a source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as trepidation,  考研精品资料 第 322 页 共 434 页 《语言学教程》考研核心笔记 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1. Why study language? （1）Language is very essential to human beings. （2）In language there are many things we should know. （3）For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 2. What is language?青岛掌р心博阅电子书 Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human  communication. 3. Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human  language from any animal system of communication. （1）Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. （2）Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are  composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. （3）Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness  refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language  provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. （4）Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts  which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 4. Origin of language （1）The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and  speech developed from that. （2）The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which  gradually developed into language. （3）The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into  chants and then into language. 5. Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: ①Referential: to convey message and information; ②Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;  考研精品资料 第 323 页 共 434 页 ③Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; ④Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; ⑤Phatic: to establish communion with others; ⑥Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three  metafunctions: ①Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer; ②Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships; ③Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and  written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of  sentences. According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions: （1）Informative The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to  communicate new information. （2）Interpersonal function 青岛掌р心博阅电子书 The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society. （3）Performative The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage  ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony,  and the cursing of enemies. （4）Emotive function The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the  emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. （5）Phatic communion The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as  Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any  factual content. （6）Recreational function The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling  or a chanter’s chanting. （7）Metalingual function The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book”  to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself. 6. What is linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the  language of all human beings. 7. Main branches of linguistics （1）Phonetics Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic  phonetics, and auditory phonetics. （2）Phonology Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the  shape of syllables.  考研精品资料 第 324 页 共 434 页 （3）Morphology Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. （4）Syntax Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply,  the study of the formation of sentences.  （5）Semantics 青岛掌е心博阅С电子书 Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. （6）Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. 8. Macrolinguistics Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely  with the formal aspect of language system. （1）Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances  and in language acquisition for example. （2）Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the  language and the social characteristics of its users. （3）Anthropological linguistics Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community. （4）Computational linguistics Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process  or produce human language. 9. Important distinctions in linguistics （1）Descriptive vs. prescriptive To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules  to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other  rules, or norms, of correctness. Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over  usage once and for all. For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.  The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all  the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive  because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription. （2）Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic  description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English  used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then  would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.  The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe  the changes that have taken place in its historical development. （3）Langue & parole Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of  linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and  考研精品资料 第 325 页 共 434 页 situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a  linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the  regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. （4）Competence and performance According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the  linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence  enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical  mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by  psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence.  Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s  competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole  distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a  property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point  of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically. （5）Etic vs. emic [These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, but  because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]青岛掌е心博阅С电子书 Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential,  differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the  native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone. Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social  sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language:  phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas  phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional  aspect. End of Chapter 1  考研精品资料 第 370 页 共 434 页 2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研复习提纲  《美国文学简史》考研复习提纲  考研精品资料 第 371 页 共 434 页  考研精品资料 第 372 页 共 434 页  考研精品资料 第 373 页 共 434 页  考研精品资料 第 396 页 共 434 页 2024 年北京第二外国语学院 611 英语综合考研核心题库  《美国文学简史》考研核心题库之简答题精编  1． What are major features of Hemingway’s writing style? 【答案】 (1)he may be classified to the school of Naturalism——scientific observation of life, without  idealism.  (2)Iceberg theory of writing: lean/economical style: (3)Colloquial style: influences by Mark Twain (4)Symbolism/ stream of consciousness (5)Theme: grace under pressure; war and its effect upon people (6)Code hero: Henry Jack Barn, Satiago (7)Simple sentence, nature, direct, fresh, clear 【His sentences are short and simple; language is vigorous and positive in colloquial style; gorgeous  adjectives are avoided; words are concrete, specific and more commonly found, casual and conversational.  Apparently natural as his style seems to be, his style is deliberate and polished. Its simplicity can be disastrously  deceptive, as it is highly suggestive and connotative and capable of offering layers of undercurrent of meaning.  Iceberg theory: one eighth is above the water; all of the rest is underneath the water. Hemingway’s strength lies in  his short sentences and very specific details in his restraint and understatement. In his opinion, a writer has got to  catch “the whiteness of the bone”, to catch the one specific thing and bring it to life and make it vivid for the  readers and leave everything else out.】 2． How does Porter describe Granny Weatherall so vividly? 【答案】 Porter adopts the controlled stream of consciousness technique to depict the dying moments of an  old lady, who is struggling with the trauma of her jilting and the oncoming of death. Since the mind can jump and  travel in time and space without explanation, time sequence is mixed up: the past is fused with the present, the  dead with the living. Her incoherent dying reveries indicate the full life she has led, the dominating role she has  played. But her last thoughts are of her being jilted years before. It is because of her dying mind presenting both  fragmentary past and present that the reader obtains a complete picture of this woman – though she has weathered  all kinds of difficulties, she has certain vulnerability (weakness). This way, the character of Granny Weatherall  becomes more authentic, truer to life and more trustworthy. The reader’s feelings of admiration for the heroine are  naturally aroused. 3． Analyze the mother daughter relationship in The Joy Luck Club. 【答案】 Universally caused by generational conflicts, is here intensified by cultural difference. In Tan’s  novels, the mothers have immigrated from China to the United States for the express purpose of providing their  daughters with greater opportunities. To their surprise and dismay, the daughters have grown up American and  thus foreign and incomprehensible. Through storytelling, each of the four mothers and daughters and daughters  attempts to make herself comprehensible to her other half. 4． what factors make Catcher in the Rye a success in American literature? 【答案】 Popular with the postwar young generation who have found in Holden an approximation of their  own experience The book’s success has also to do with its superb handling of language.  考研精品资料 第 397 页 共 434 页 5． What is Hawthorne’s “black” vision of life and human beings? 【答案】 Hawthorne’s literary world is very disturbed, tormented and problematical, mostly because of his  black vision of life and human beings. He looks more deeply and honestly into life, finding in it much suffering  and conflict, and the redeeming power of love. According to Hawthorne, “There is evil in every human heart,”  and a piece of literary work should “show how we are all wronged and wrongers and avenging one another.” So in  almost every book he writes, Hawthorne discusses sin and evil. One source of evil Hawthorne is concerned most  is the over-reaching intellect (pride of intellect), which usually refers to someone who is too proud, too sure of  himself. The tension between the head and the heart (ration and emotion) constitutes one of the dramatic moments  when the evil of “pride of intellect” would be fully revealed. Hawthorne’s intellectuals are usually villains,  dreadful because they are devoid of warmth and feelings. They tend to go beyond and violate the natural order by  doing something impossible and reaching the final truth, without a sober mind (清醒的头脑) about their own  limitations as human beings. Chillingworth, Dr. Rappaccini, Ethan Brand, Dr. Aylmer in “Birth Mark”, Owen  Warland in “The Artist of the Beautiful” are but a few specimens of Hawthorne’s chilling, cold-blooded human  animals. 6． what are major feature of American poetry in 1950s and 1960s? 【答案】 Features (1)Some poets found inspiration in the past. (2)Poetry became more attuned to political and social issues of the period. (3)Poets became more visible in American public life. (4)There was no prescribed form for poetry. (5)Poets became more political.  Themes such as homosexuality, racism, etc. are included in the poems. In 1960s, poetry became more and  more political. 7． Compare Whitman and Dickson’s poetry in terms of content and technique? 【答案】 Similarities: (1)Thematically, they both extolled, in their different ways, an emergent America, its expansion, its  individualism and its Americanness, their poetry being part of “American Renaissance”. (2)Technically, they both added to the literary independence of the new nation by breaking free of the  convention of the iambic pentameter and exhibiting a freedom in form unknown before: they were pioneers in  American poetry.(newness pioneers) differences: (1)Whitman seems to keep his eye on society at large; Dickinson explores the inner life of the individual. (2)Whereas Whitman is “national” in his outlook, Dickinson is “regional”. (3)Dickinson has the “catalogue technique” (concise, direct, simple style and diction) which Whitman  doesn’t have (endless—all—inclusive catalogue sentences). 8． What kind of feeling does the last stanza of “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” show? How do  you appreciate the poem? 【答案】 The last stanza of “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” shows a kind of sad, sentimental but  also strong and responsible feeling. This poem is one of Frost’s most touching lyrics. On the surface, it seems  simple and descriptive verses, records of close observation, graphic and homely pictures with simplest terms and  commonest words. But it is deeply meditative, adding far richer meanings to the plain music. The coldness and  stillness of the snowy woods appeal to something in man that mysteriously desires sleep, oblivion or even death.  The speaker toys with such notions, but other human qualities drive him to home and duties. He couldn’t stay  longer by the woods to appreciate its mysterious beauty because he has promises to keep and obligation to fulfill.  考研精品资料 第 398 页 共 434 页 The poet’s superb craftsmanship enables him to say so much in so little. This poem is often read as an optimistic  comment on human nature. 9． What can you infer from the poem—The Road Not Taken? What does the poet want to show to the  reader in this poem? 【答案】 The Road Not Taken is the most famous poem by Robert Frost. Facing two pretty roads, the  speaker hesitated to make his choice for a long time. In the end he took the one that was grassy and not frequently  traveled. Here perhaps the poet is speaking of himself as he had followed an unusually solitary life. Or perhaps  he’s speaking of his choice to be a poet rather than take other common professions. To be a poet at his times  would be like traveling on a grassy road as very few people were trying their luck there. Practically, it may  concern the important decisions one must make in life when he has to give up one desirable thing in order to  possess another. Then whatever the outcome, he must take the consequences of his choice for it is not possible for  him to go back and have another try. The speaker of the poem might have suffered a lot due to his decision, but he  did not regret since his choice brought him some differences. 10．Why is the prison the setting of Chapter I and what is the implication of the description of the roses? 【答案】 Hawthorne’s intention of using the prison as the setting of Chapter I is quite obvious. Here, the  prison – “black flower of civilized society” symbolizes the 17th-century Puritan society of Boston, where its  residents were all prisoners as there was no freedom (of speech, will or love) but cruel and outdated rules and  regulations. Yet no matter how dark the prison-like Puritan environment was, there had been some brave and  steadfast people fighting for justice, right and freedom. Anne Hutchinson was a good example. Hawthorne’s  description of the roses carries such implication that Hester Prynne was following Anne Hutchinson’s footsteps,  remaining faithful to Nature and morality. The roses – “sweet moral blossom” symbolize hope and future of  mankind. 11．What has happened to Hester? Why does she make the embroidery of the letter “A” so elaborate? How  does this tell us about her character? 【答案】 Hester has offended the Puritan rule, sinned, guilty of adultery. Condemned (Punished) to wear on  the breast of her gown the scarlet letter, “A”, she is to stand on the platform before the meeting house for 3 hours  so that her shame (disgrace) might be a timely warning and a reproach to all who saw her. The reason why she makes the embroidery of the letter “A” so elaborate might be that she believes in and  treasures her true love with Dimmesdale. She is loyal to her lover, faithful to morality, honest to herself. She  becomes independent and strong in psychology, generous in action, living a life with complete dignity and great  fortitude.  考研精品资料 第 399 页 共 434 页 《美国文学简史》考研核心题库之论述题精编 1． what’s the difference between Henry James’ realism and Mark Twain’s realism? 【答案】 Although James and Twain both worked for realism, there were obvious differences between them.  In thematic terms, James wrote mostly of the upper reaches of American society, whereas Mark Twain dealt  largely with the lower strata of society. Technically, James pursued the Psychological realism, but Mark Twain's  contribution to the development of realism and to American literature as a whole was partly through his theories  of Local Colorism in American fiction, and partly through his colloquial style. Henry James believed that reality lies in the impressions made by life on the spectator, and not in any facts of  which the spectator is unaware, such realism is therefore merely the obligation that the artist assumes to represent  life as he sees it, which may not be the same life as it "really" is. James shifted the ground of realistic art from the  outer to the inner world.  Mark Twain preferred to represent social life through portraits of local places which he knew best. He drew  heavily from his own rich fund of knowledge of people and places. He confined himself to the life with which he  was familiar. By quoting from his own experience, Mark Twain managed to transform into art the freedom and  humor, in short, the finest elements of western culture. 8/in connection with American Romanticism, how do you understand the “newness” of the American as a  nation? There is an amount of truth in describing the Americans as some-what different from Europeans. Their ideals  of individualism and political equality, and their dream that America was to be a new Garden of Eden for man  were distinctly American plan. The ideals may have been mere talk, and the dream may have been in the process  of evaporation or even may have been just the figment of imagination, but their very existence in any form in the  minds of the people did probably produce a feeling of "newness", a feeling strong enough to inspire the romantic  imagination and channel it into a different vein of writing. Hence the sense of mission with which some American  romanticists undertook to represent their people in the New World. Anyone who tries to appreciate American  literature in general and American romantic writing in particular in English and European terms will have to be  content if they fail to find any thing "great" there. 2． The difference between Realism and Naturalism  【答案】 The literary naturalists have a major difference from the realists. The naturalists also describe real  life, the way things really are. They do not escape into a world of imagination, but they dismiss the realists as far  too ‘genteel’. The naturalists look at a different spot to find real life. They do not look at the average, but at the  violent, sensational, sordid, unpleasant and ugly aspects of life. Instead of going to a middle-class neighborhood  and write about middle-class life, the naturalists would go to the slums and write about the life of poverty and  crime. This fits their theory that they have adopted by applying Darwinian techniques to the behavior of human.  They think that the true reality is not found in the smiling aspects of middle-class life. The true reality is found  when forces of Nature are most dominant in stopping human desires, in keeping humans from accomplishing their  dreams. They write about war, about prostitution, about criminals which form the aspects of life that are not too  pleasant to consider.  What distinguishes realist from naturalist texts is restraint, not action itself. After all, naturalist characters act  out of a similar set of motives and desires, and they differ from their realist counterparts only in being unable to  resist the conditions that press upon them.  Realists present their character as a unified self, subjectively whole and self-consistent, but naturalists see  this self as no more than an illusion. Characters in naturalist texts are portrayed as more or less combinations of  innate traits and socialized habits. 试读已结束 激活后可查看剩余未读页数！